Chapter 10: Information Technology Management
Note: Information technology is
a field that changes daily. This chapter provides a basic overview of how
technology affects park and recreation managers. However, because technology
changes so rapidly, park and recreation managers must stay updated on both
technological developments and applications to management.
Information Technology (IT) is one component
of management systems. This chapter is
an overview of Information Technology:
• What is information technology?
• The manager’s responsibilities
• The information resources
• IT as a management tool
• Understanding IT infrastructure
• IT planning
What is IT?
A goal of management is to provide the right tools for
staff to effortlessly access and store the information required to manage or
provide a service. A park and recreation organization may be comprised of many
operational and administrative aspects. Each has an information component.
Information technology (IT) is the means by which these aspects perform their
information tasks. The information component is composed of six basic tasks or
functions. (See Exhibit 10-1.)
Information technology is an umbrella term which covers a vast array of computer disciplines that permit organizations to manage their information resources.
Computers are not new to park and recreation organization management. To better understand how to manage IT today, it is necessary to look at two older technologies: data processing and management information systems (MIS). These are still an integral part of many existing IT services.
In the 1960s and 1970s, computer functions were organized into a special division called “data processing,” staffed by personnel skilled in the use of computers. These divisions usually serviced the entire organization — that is, the municipality of which parks and recreation was a part, the area YMCA with its branches and many programs, or a resort with its different operational facets.
The traditional data processing model has three main components (see Exhibit 10-2):
1. Data entry: day-to-day production data entry
2. Operations: day-to-day maintenance, routine report generation, backup, etc.
3. Applications: software development, maintenance, and support
In the 1980s, smaller and less expensive computers helped managers place terminals on their desks to monitor daily business. The shift to managers having direct access to information changed the emphasis of computing. The computer functions were referred to as Management Information Systems (MIS) (See Exhibit 10-3).
There was a major shift from manual record-keeping systems to electronic data entry. Instead of having a data entry division with skilled computer personnel, the park and recreation operation could do its own entry directly into the mini or mainframe computer; however, MIS specialists were employed, and there may have been an MIS division or unit. The major effect on the workforce was that now managers, supervisors, secretaries, and other staff had to have basic computer skills to do their jobs.
The 1990s ushered in personal computers (PCs) on a mass scale. Staff enjoyed the freedom of immediate access to computer functions without depending on the MIS division in larger organizations or the MIS expert in smaller ones. Networking desktop units together further increased the value of the PC investment. During the early 1990s, the traditional mainframe operation continued and a new computer unit developed which supported the PC users at the desktop. This movement to support users at the desktop with simple off-the-shelf computer applications (word processing, spreadsheets, and small databases) was referred to as office automation. During this time, there were three computer environments that coexisted:
• Mainframe computing: Large general applications (e.g., accounting)
• Departmental computing: Organization-specific databases (e.g., facility scheduling)
• Personal computing: Office automation (e.g., word processing)
Moving toward the year 2000, businesses and government are viewing computer functions as one information resource that has many components, each of which uses technological advances. The principal components (mainframe computer operations, enterprise networking, desktop support, and telecommunications) are now referred to as Information Services (IS) or Information Technology (IT). (See IT Planning for further discussion of merging computers and communication technology, specifically paradigm shifts.)
Why IT?
Ultimately, information technology serves as a “fundamental force in reshaping organizations by applying investment in computing and communications to promote competitive advantage, customer service, and other strategic benefits.”
(Wang, 1994, p. 3)
Becoming more productive by using information technology to make management decisions is the ultimate goal of information technology management. Information technology management is a means to make the connection between the park and recreation business and the customers served, whether those customers are in a park, city, university, or a natural preserve. Information technology management has become, and will continue to be, a “value-added” to the organization.
IT solves business problems. If there are no business problems, there is little need for IT. Management today requires the detailed measurement of service delivery and the consequential analysis and review of that service. Information technology will not make better managers. IT will increase the availability of information, allow the manager to view it in different ways, and assist in the decision-making process. IT does not shut down inefficient recreation centers, managers do. A manager must learn to frame information requests so as to address business problems. (See assessing needs under the Information Technology Plan)
IT increases personal productivity. IT skills are the language of business. Just about every device manufactured today has a keypad, keyboard, or set of buttons as an interface. People who use a number of these devices learn they are similar in operation. Setting a digital watch is much like setting the timer on a VCR. Using a bank machine is much like navigating through an automated voice response telephone system. Using a computer is much the same.
All organizations should want to see their employees grow professionally and personally. The advent of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) has made the operation of a computer easier to learn. This interface (the look and feel) allows the user to learn intuitively. Instead of reading manuals, the user simply looks at the screen and selects the options that make sense. Software applications are written with help on-screen in the computer program, instead of large, intimidating manuals. As users need assistance, they simply press the help button. Part of the realized efficiency of an organization is the progressive development of information skills.
Those who have the skills and knowledge to navigate cyberspace will participate fully in the global village of the future. It is to them that prosperity will belong.
(Withrow, 1997)
The Manager and IT
Just as managers are responsible for the
physical resources, human resources,
and financial resources of an organization, so are they responsible and
accountable for the information resources. A manager is not required to know
everything about computers and IT. However, the manager must show leadership by
acknowledging the strategic importance of IT and subsequently allocating of
time and money for its proper deployment. The strategic direction of an IT
resource is the ultimate responsibility of the organization and its manager.
The manager is an integral part of the information culture. The information
culture change requires the park and recreation manager to move the management
information systems to a technology platform. (See last section, The IT Plan.)
The number one problem — or opportunity — will always be, “How can the customer’s needs be met?” It is the organization’s response to this question that will dictate the future. Organizations that align their information resources to answer this question will move quickly into the twenty first century. The technology, software, hardware, systems, and vendors are all in place. Park and recreation organizations are all in various stages of IT evolution. Change is the key. IT cannot improve service delivery if executives, managers, supervisors, and functional personnel do not embrace IT and change their system of service delivery.
Change starts from the top. The manager must be committed to change. If the responsibility for IT is delegated to another level in the organization and there is no expectation for “change,” then there will be increased administrative costs and little service enhancement.
Change continues with management. Regardless of how successful an organization is in providing services, it must continue to ask, “Should this service be provided by us?” To answer this question, management must be committed to developing an IT infrastructure that answers that question. This system should integrate financial, service performance, and marketing information.
Change is guaranteed if supervisors buy in and understand what the benefits will be. The actual day-to-day service delivery responsibilities fall to the supervisors. These individuals understand the requirements of providing good service and are very skeptical about doing something they do not perceive to be beneficial. To them it is one more process, one more technical hassle, and one more administrative task to learn. Supervisors provide a wealth of operational knowledge. IT functions should be a part of the daily workflow and not a redundant task. In this the manager has an essential role.
Change will be easiest for the functional employees. Most young members of the workforce are computer literate. They are frustrated because there is not more computer access. In fact, there may be service degradation if a staff member is spending more time using the computer than delivering services.
An organization may need to be reorganized to reflect the IT way of thinking. It is up to the manager to serve as a change agent and to:
• Develop the guidelines for making decisions on what and how much to invest in the management information systems for hardware, personnel, system redesign, upgrades, and development of design
• Create a uniform information infrastructure to capitalize on the network of computers, databases, information policies, methods, procedures, and practices in place
• Allow for more telecommunications
• Define the roles of the information management professional as a conduit between the users, and as an integral player in the business model
• Define what is acceptable performance by all the people who feed information into the park and recreation system
What Information?
Information Resources
An organization’s information resources are
characterized by the sources and
types of information.
Sources
Every organization is defined by the information resources it is empowered to maintain. Information resources are the documents, files, and databases — both paper and electronic — that an organization creates and maintains in order to manage or provide services. Many resources are mandated in the governance: articles of incorporation, charter, or enabling legislation of an organization. Some resources are created as a best practice of management in which information is a professional requirement or expectation. (See CAPRA standards at end of the chapter; also see Chapter 16, the information/documentation section.) Other information resources are created as a result of the professional discipline or historical practice. For some of the information resources which might come from these three common sources, see Exhibit 10- 4.
Administrative and service statistics/information
Organizations should maintain appropriate service statistics in order to plan, interpret, and evaluate park and recreation programs and services. The administrative reporting system should provide management with information on the activities of the organization.
Appropriate records on individual participants and groups should be maintained in a form that lends itself to summarization to provide useful information. Examples include the proportion of constituents receiving services; number of participants registered, number of groups and sessions, attendance; composition characteristics of the participants as well as the constituency, such as age, gender, cultural background, marital status, educational level, occupation, length of time in community; and effects of program on participants when measured, such as level of proficiency, learning of new skills, changes in behavior patterns, new interests expressed, etc.
Information also may be used to predict workloads, determine personnel and other resource needs, and prepare budgets. Examples of data sources are program attendance, equipment and material inventories, work orders, and budget administration records.
Properly designed administrative reports will reflect comparative data and trends on activities. All records and reports should conform to such uniform and current methods of maintaining records and reporting data as may be developed from time to time within the professional field, so that local data may be used for comparative information with other park and recreation organizations.
Monthly reports should provide heads of organizational components with an opportunity to account for the activities in their units during the previous month. Administrative matters may be discussed in the report. Comparative data on activities of the previous month, same month during the previous year, and year-to-date are valuable sources of management information. The monthly report may also permit the heads of organizational units to identify the objectives of their units for the next month. Then, the annual report may be a summary of the monthly reports. The report should provide comparative data and statistics and account for the activities of the organization.
Information types
Collected information falls into four general categories:
• Personal information refers to electronic mail (e-mail), voice mail (v-mail), faxing, paging, chatting, browsing (surfing), video conferencing, and telephone (voice). Personal information can be created by using office automation products (word processing, spreadsheets, business graphics, and others). This includes letters, memos, and notes.
• Operational information refers to the business function of an organization. Program registration information is important to the business function of a recreation center. Work-order systems are important to park maintenance groups. The software applications related to these IT functions are referred to as vertical markets, which means that they are specially written for a specific discipline. Sports scheduling software and membership software fall into the vertical market category. Operational information is used for day-to-day business management.
• Administrative information refers to applications that are needed in all sections within an organization. Human resources, payroll, and accounting applications are IT services that are used in all areas of business. Even an organization that does not administer one of these applications may be involved with the work flow through the use of time cards, purchase orders, and check requests. Administrative systems are usually closely watched to make sure the systems are correctly used and to ensure data integrity. Administrative systems contain information that users want on a periodic basis.
• Departmental information is any information (personal, administrative, or operational) that is used for organization business.
The distinctions between these information types are important. All users create a certain amount of personal information. This information may not be on the organization network, thus it may not be supported. Departmental information must be stored on the organization network so that it can be supported and accessed by other staff members. Users not attached to the network must identify procedures for supporting departmental information. (See later section on disaster recovery.)
Many users handle departmental information like personal information. It is stored in an area not routinely supported, and it is not accessible to others. Typically, the standards for creating this information are developed by the user. As such, it is not easily merged, sorted, or integrated with other departmental information. Many staff perceive their databases to be the official records of the organization; however, they lack accuracy and precision because information was never verified and standards for data entry were lacking.
Each information resource has a cost associated with managing it. As the number of information resources increases, so does the complexity of the organization. The value of information to the organization increases as more people who need it can access it. One goal for an organization seeking “peak efficiency” is to design an information system that allows all staff to have access to any information resource necessary to get their jobs done. The costs of such a system increase with the complexity of the organization. Complexity becomes greater as the organization:
• Increases staff (staff additions)
• Increases the number of organization services offered (new services)
• Increases the number of staff locations (new facilities)
• Restricts staff access (additional security administration)
• Hires computer-illiterate staff (no training expectations)
• Lacks a technology plan and engages in unrestricted buying and implementation
Information is the result of collection, manipulation, and analysis. Information has a cost, a value, and a shelf life. There is no value to information unless someone needs it. The value of information increases if the user can have access to it in any form desired with an immediate turnaround and if it is current. This can only be accomplished with a good business plan overlaid with a good IT plan. The ultimate goal is to connect all business units together with a common interface and to enforce a management expectation that each unit keep its information up-to-date. The information must be correct, accessible, and timely. (See Exhibit 10-5.)
IT as a Management Tool
Every organization should have an informa-
tion
technology system. Some organizations will have a very simplified computer
system, while others will have a quite sophisticated system. The system should
provide reliable information to be used in management decision making. An
appropriate information system should encompass both records management and
administrative and program service statistics. Additional uses of IT as a
management tool for park and recreation organizations can be described by five
specific technologies and disaster recovery procedures:
• Internet (e-commerce)
• Intranet (internal sharing of organization resources)
• Messaging (unrestricted communication with staff, vendors and customers)
• GIS (a visual look at data)
• GPS (transmission via satellite)
Records management
It is vital for every organization, no matter how large or small, simple or complex, to have a records management system. Records are the lifeblood of an organization. A mark of excellence is proper records management.
The primary function of good record keeping is accountability to the user and organization. Records management is a stewardship process that accounts for the use and status of organization resources and adds integrity to decision making. IT is an important tool for gathering, storing, and recalling information. There must be standards for all record keeping systems, electronic or manual. Consider these items when evaluating a records management system:
• What records must be maintained?
• How are active and inactive records retained/stored?
• Who will establish an inventory of records with a filing system for ease of retrieval?
• How are records secured from unauthorized use?
• How are records protected from possible fire/water damage (disaster control)?
• Who is authorized to use the records?
• How long should records be retained (retention schedule) consistent with legal requirements?
• Who is responsible for managing the records system?
• How can records be managed more economically or efficiently?
Records come from every aspect of management in the organization. They should include at least financial, personnel, and program records; property inventories; legal documents; and accident reports. See chapters 14 and 15 for details regarding financial records. Personnel records are defined in chapters 12 and 13. Records needed especially for planning are discussed in chapters 5 and 7. An information/documentation system for risk management is essential (see chapter 16).
The Internet
The Internet is electronic “commerce” and is used for retrieving and disseminating information.
The Internet is actually a global collection of networks that pass information to each other. It is a collection of thousands of subnetworks in more than ninety countries around the world. The Internet allows otherwise incompatible computer systems or networks of computers to talk to one another, to speak a common language, and to transmit and receive data via dedicated, high-speed telecommunication lines using numerical addresses.
Some features of the Internet have increased the use by entities in the public sector, private-for-profit sector, commercial sector, and private, nonprofit sector:
• Browsers made it possible to see graphics, thus multimedia became popular
• Powerful search engines were developed and enhanced to make finding information easier
• Companies wanted a presence on the net because they saw the marketing potential of this medium
• Internet Service Providers (ISP) became proliferate so subscribers could pay a modest cost to access the Internet
• Software was developed which allowed the secure transfer of money electronically to enable business transactions
The Internet is the most used and versatile of the technologies
for all organizations, private and public, business and leisure. It provides
service and program functions, external communication, and retrieval of
information useful in the administration of the organization. [Note: Web sites and Web addresses (URLs)
may change!] Most sites also have “links,” which give more sources of
information. Many organizations have their own “home pages” which provide
information regarding the organization. Organizations use the Internet:
• As a global tool for communications
e.g.,
to contact a person in another country
• As a means to collaborate to solve problems
e.g., there are “nets” or “lists” set up by many organizations for members or those interested in a specific topic to obtain information on a given problem situation. See, for example:
SPRENET (to
subscribe) Listserv@listserv.uga.edu
• As a marketing tool for the organization
e.g., using the Internet not only for advertising a service or product, but also to make reservations, or purchase a product. See, for example:
http://206.253.228.155/welcome.htm
Canadiana http://www.cs.cmu.edu/Unofficial/Canadiana/READ
Wilderness Science
& Management (
Great Outdoor Recreation Pages (GORP)
http://www.gorp.com/default.htm
• As a way to secure the latest information or research on a topic or a trend
e.g., if someone is doing a survey, he or she might be interested in an informational document on survey research, which can be found on Bill Trochim’s site on evaluation research methods at:
http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/index.htm
Bitterroot
Ecosystem Management Research
Project http://www.umt.edu/ccesp/c&i/nrm/bemrp/geninfo.htm
• As a source for government documents or official statistics.
e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act
http://janweb.icdi.wvu.edu/kinder/
U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov
• As a means to
purchase/order office supplies, books, or products
• As a communications media with consumers, with public access for
– Registration or reservations
– Communication back to the organization
• As a professional organization contact for information, services, and products. See, e.g.,
NRPA
http://www.nrpa.org
Canadian
Association for Leisure Studies
http://www.eas.ualberta.ca/elj/cals/home.htm
Travel and
Tourism Research Association
http://www.ttra.com
National Society for Park Resources http://www.nrpa.org/branches/nspr/nspr.htm
• As a contact with federal or state organizations
USDA Forest
Service
http://www.fs.fed.us
• As a link to other information (many web sites have such links)
e.g., to illustrate, try:
See also previous section on Information Types.
Intranet for intraorganization
communication
An intranet is basically a “private Internet.” Intranet technology is fundamentally the same as Internet technology, all based around the Hyper Text Markup Language (html) and the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (http). “Hypertext” describes the ability to jump around a text document by choosing keywords (or anchors as they are called in html).
The intranet is the method of implementing what was once called
the “paperless office.” By using intranet technology, coupled with custom
programming and interfaces, an entire organization can be run using little to
no paper. Besides being environmentally sound, intranet technology makes it
easier to manage and handle the vast amount of information necessary to run
even the smallest business. On the other end of the spectrum, intranet
technology is infinitely scalable all the way to multinational corporations by
using various distributed computing technologies. In
The information on the intranet is not for customers to see. It is comprised of administrative information maintained by each section in the organization (each department in the government). The interface to access this information (the browser) is the same interface used for the Internet. With browsers installed on each computer and Web sites developed for each section, an organization can very inexpensively maintain and use information.
Typical organization intranets have job postings, employee handbooks, calendar of events, and other information specific to organization functions. Another component of the organization intranet is the employee area. Many times organizations will allocate a portion of the intranet for staff to post items for sale, retirement parties, or personal announcements (births, deaths, weddings, etc.). This sort of use adds a human touch to technology.
Messaging
The most widely used piece of technology in the office is the telephone. The communications industry has grown to provide high-speed services for data communication to connect computers. The combination of voice and data functions has led to the development of a worldwide network of communication services. This technology makes it possible for national and international companies to provide services to users without regard to location. Airline reservation systems and automatic teller machines are good examples of the successful use of these technologies.
The discipline of data communications introduced a new set of technology problems. Reliability in connecting two computers for long periods was difficult to achieve. Business and government installed specialized wiring systems within their buildings to accommodate computer access. Engineers had to move a vast amount of data from point to point without losing any of the pieces. A number of companies emerged during the 1990s to meet the specific needs of high-speed data users. This has led to a global network of high-speed data lines. Now there are many private and public communication network companies competing for computer users.
With knowledge doubling every seventeen months (Catlett, 1995),
it has become necessary to devise “just-in-time” solutions for a multitude of
recreation and park crises. The proliferation of information has created a data smog composed of messages by telephone, fax, e-mail,
voice mail, and pagers. Communication alone has been sufficient justification
for organizations to invest in IT. Park and recreation personnel do not all
work the traditional
To the user today, the distinction between the voice and data lines is being blurred through telephony. The phone line is now capable of sending messages around the world in whatever medium or technology end users select. People are connected seven days a week, twenty-four hours a day, sometimes live (telephone and chatting) and sometimes delayed (e-mail or v-mail). As the messaging component moves to conduits such as cable, the speed of processing the ever-increasing amounts of information increases, as well as the demands for “instant service” or “instant gratification of expectations.” The role of management is to sort out what is necessary for business and what staff members, the general public, and customers have come to expect as standard business tools needed for communication, problem solving, and marketing.
As park and recreation organizations evolve more technologically, they adopt a number of messaging technologies. Each technology has a purpose, function, and cost (both direct and indirect). The benefits of each vary with the function they serve. The telephone is still the communication tool of choice by businesses around the globe. Since it transmits over the phone lines, as the Internet becomes more popular the demand for more telephone services increases. Both high-speed and voice-grade telephone services have increased dramatically in the last few years to accommodate the services people demand, such as:
• Alpha paging systems
• Automated teller machines
• Credit card validation
• Fax machines
• Internet access to ISPs
• More administrative line costs attributed to IT security systems
• Utility monitoring systems
Tracking telephone charges in the past was easy. There was one charge for monthly use, one charge for installation, and detailed charges for long distance. Today, a telephone bill can contain numerous services (call waiting, call forwarding, voice mail, caller ID, etc.). The long distance service may come from several providers on one bill. Many ISP providers require that billing be a part of the phone bill (to decrease mailing costs and guarantee collections). In an organization that has numerous phone lines, it is very difficult to manage costs. However, there must be a system to monitor line costs in order to ensure telephone lines are not going unused or being abused.
There is a cost for issuing pagers and cell phones to employees to keep them in touch with customers and one another when in field locations, such as for maintenance calls, monitoring a crowd, at an athletic field, or as an emergency communication, etc. Often, complicated policies are developed to prevent abuse; consequently, staff refuse to use pagers because of the hassle factor. There must be clear business reasons for issuing such devices and a reasonable expectation for use. These devices should also be monitored, together with the phone lines.
Voice mail should be issued to staff who expect calls from vendors, other departments, or organization staff members. Published phone numbers (white pages) are designated public numbers. These are considered call points, meaning the person answering the phone should be prepared to assist the caller or be able to route the call to the proper section within the organization. Voice mail usually should be checked more frequently on published numbers.
Some larger organizations use a call center approach to handling the public. In a call center, answering the phone is the number one task. Call center workers are equipped with computer equipment that allows them to access the information necessary to assist the caller. The public dials one number, and the calls are logged using an Automated Call Distribution (ACD) system. This system is a tool used to guarantee prompt service for callers and time management for call center personnel.
An alternative to the call center is an Automated Voice Response (AVR) system to route calls. Typically, a person would call a central number and get an automated response.
AVR systems are good for screening and routing calls, but may not be viewed as good customer service by people who wish to speak to a live person. AVR systems can be set up to disseminate information. The AVR system can be linked to a fax-back system to allow an organization to fax common forms to the requesting public. The caller enters a set of voice prompts that gather the fax number to send the document. The document is usually faxed within ten minutes. The caller should always have the capability to leave a voice mail message or be transferred to an operator. Being trapped in a AVR system without being able to get to a live person is considered voice mail jail. This situation can be very upsetting to callers.
The success of these systems depends on an easy and efficient system design, public education (training), and management commitment to implementing and supporting them. The phone numbers and codes should be distributed with all marketing materials. It may take three to four seasons of operation before the public begins to use them regularly. It is essential that management understands that this type of system involves change, and change takes time.
Centralized faxing is a network product that allows staff to send and receive faxes from their computers. Most fax telephone lines have long distance capability. A fax router receives in-bound faxes. The first page is read to determine to whom the fax should be routed. The fax is then routed to a nearby network printer or to a designated computer. Fax services can be extended to anyone attached to the network. One to four phone lines can be allocated to the fax server. Each fax sent is queued in the fax server until a line becomes available. Once the fax is sent, a message to the sender is delivered regarding the successful or unsuccessful transmission of the fax. The cost of such a system is about the same as that of one high-end fax machine.
Decentralized faxing is the proliferation of fax machines and phone lines to support the faxing service in various parts of the organization. This process is unaffected should the network go down. The cost of owning, supplying, and maintaining a high number of machines can be a drain.
E-mail is the most versatile of the messaging technologies. E-mail can be used to send messages inside and outside of the organization (via the Internet). It is possible to send e-mail as faxes (by routing an e-mail to a fax machine) or to an alpha pager. E-mail has long been used to send attachments, which are other files (documents, spreadsheets, databases, graphics, etc.). E-mail can be distributed to multiple people simultaneously. Many times an e-mail conversation is more efficient than talking on the phone. Most messages are short, to the point, and easy to print, whereas there is no documentation for voice conversations. E-mail allows communication to staff with divergent schedules, in remote locations, or away on business. The user can subscribe to special services on the Internet that will e-mail information to him or her when it becomes available (list servers). The user can buy things, pay bills, request services, and communicate with vendors around the world.
Various features of the e-mail system require additional software and hardware to be purchased. There are both shareware versions and licensed, full-featured versions of e-mail software. The complexity of the e-mail system requires an expert to install and maintain it. As it becomes more important to day-to-day operations, more resources will be required to support it (assisting users, administration, configuring users, etc.). Policies regarding the use, abuse, and private nature of e-mail must be established. Security could be a problem. Some businesses view e-mail as an electronic signature or authorization. It could be possible to misrepresent the organization by using another’s e-mail to order services. Further, staff should understand that e-mail is considered a public document, and under the Freedom of Information Act, the media and others may request e-mail memos from public organizations.
Electronic messaging is a powerful tool. It requires thoughtful implementation. Costs must be balanced with service efficiency. Services are varied and complex and as such must be managed appropriately. A messaging audit is a valuable management tool. (See Exhibit 10-6.)
Geographic information system (GIS)
One key to IT is the ability to summarize data for decision making. Many decisions lend themselves to being viewed spatially or thematically on a map. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is another important technology tool that will allow the user to solve problems visually. GIS can be used for such purposes as:
• Displaying capital improvement dollars spent by a neighborhood
• Inventorying trees on urban streets
• Displaying easements for utilities on or near park property
• Maintaining a mailing list for all residents within a one-mile radius of a park
• Providing zoning and demographic information
• Identifying historic sites, animal habitats, facilities, etc.
Organizations are increasingly required to operate with the speed and efficiency of private business while facing ever more complex political and regulatory issues. Organizations must digest an immense amount of information to perform their duties in a fair and sound manner. A GIS has the data management tools to help organizations accomplish this task. GIS technology provides a flexible set of tools to perform diverse functions. More important, it makes data sharing among departments easy.
What is a GIS? A GIS
is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events
that happen on Earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations,
such as queries and statistical analysis, with the visualization and geographic
analysis benefits offered by maps. Consider weather reporting on television or
in the newspaper. A database containing the “high temperatures” around the
country is connected with a map of the
Encyclopedias have always been good at displaying information about various states by map. On a population map, various sizes of dots represent cities. The bigger the dot, the higher the population. Symbology is also used on maps. To show the locations of picnic areas, a symbol of a picnic table is placed on a map. To show the boundaries of a national park, a colored line is drawn and the resulting area is shaded green. Whether siting a new location for a recreation center, finding the demographics of neighborhood areas, or figuring out the best route for an emergency vehicle, local projects also have a geographic component.
Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks better and faster than do the old manual methods. Before GIS technology, only a few people had the skills necessary to use geographic information to help with decision making and problem solving.
Today, GIS is a multi-billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. GIS is taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world. Professionals in every field are increasingly aware of the advantages of thinking and working geographically.
Components of a GIS. A working GIS integrates five key components:
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• People
• Methods
(Information courtesy of
ESRI GIS Solutions for Everyone at http://www.esri.com/gisstore.html.
See Exhibit 10-7.) When a major wildfire occurred at a national seashore,
GIS/GPS solutions were used to manage the fire. (See Exhibit 10-8).
GIS information can be accessed from the Web and the desktop. Users from all organizations are able to query and provide information both efficiently and economically. The foregoing components must be organized into a framework that will give GIS a chance to provide the intended benefits.
Holistic View vs. Reality. In order to integrate GIS, one must have a clear view of the benefits it can provide and the costs necessary to get there. If GIS is viewed as a “new” entity within an organization, it will be perceived as a high-priced “luxury” item, which executives and management will have a difficult time funding and supporting. A “limited” GIS with the same lofty expectations will yield an unfinished product, burned-out staff, and halfhearted support from management.
Big Picture in Simple Terms.
Given:
• Public information should be available and shared with all
• Information is power, and control of information is ultimate power
• Tax increases to support technology advances in government are difficult to justify but not impossible
• It would be difficult to put a price on a technology that could tie the data of multigovernment organizations together
• It would be equally as difficult to put a price on the “lost benefit” of not being able to tie data from multigovernment organizations together
Assumptions:
• Money is not a problem
• Political control is not a problem
• Willingness of management is not a problem
• Availability of technology is not a problem
• Public support is not a problem
See Exhibit 10-9 for solving a problem with GIS.
Back to
Reality. GIS is already a valuable tool working publicly and
commercially. Via the Internet, anyone can locate a travel route from their
home city to just about any address in the
Guidelines for getting started in GIS:
• Planning and development of a full-blown GIS system can best be done by a qualified GIS consulting firm.
• Identify the GIS users who maintain the “map” in your area.
• Organizations should specialize in creating layers of data and not in maintaining the map.
• Organizations can maintain their own maps (in the absence of a map provider) if the map is limited to basic features that do not change often.
• Explore other cities and gather information about their GIS system.
• Every section and function within the organization represents a potential “layer” of data. It would be beneficial if:
– All address information were entered the same way (e.g., street spellings)
– All manual systems were moved to electronic
– Standard codes were developed for tasks and locations
– Expectations included keeping data up-to-date
– Long-term executive support recognized high “front end” costs, although benefits not realized early on
– Other organizations were involved, developing a consortium of users that support the project (making it long-term in scope)
To participate in GIS takes a high-end workstation, software, and connectivity to the GIS library of data. To host the GIS requires a high-powered server and the software to go with it. Without data, a GIS is just a mapping system. Although it is fun to find an individual’s house and look at other information, GIS will do little to solve business problems without data. Technical day-to-day management of GIS is best left to organizations (or contractors) with that expertise. Strategic managers and users within the organization should be trained in the end-user skills of GIS (creating layers and making maps.) GIS is a cost-effective technology to tie data together.
For a case study using GIS,
go to the following Web address:
www.esri.com/base/news/arcnews/summer97articles/21-fire_mgmt.html
Global positioning systems (GPS)
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of many Department of Defense satellites that orbit the earth approximately every twelve hours. The position and time information transmitted by these satellites is used by a GPS receiver to trilaterate a location on the earth.
GPS was developed to provide a continuous, 24 hour, 3-D (position and elevation) coverage anywhere on Earth. It provides reliable, repeatable information that is unaffected by rough terrain and bad weather, and is highly resistant to multipath errors and interference.
The satellites broadcast on two carrier frequencies. On these carrier frequencies are broadcast codes, much like radio or television stations broadcast information on their channels (frequencies). The satellites broadcast two codes, a military-only encrypted code (PPS) and a civil-access or Standard Positioning (SPS) code.
GIS and GPS are part of site-specific management technology. Other aspects include sensors and variable-rate technology (VRT). Sensors give quick, indirect, real-time measurements of soil and plants which can help in maintenance operations. Sensors can measure soil organic matter content, soil and plant moisture, soil and plant nutrient levels, and pest incidence. VRT was developed to help apply precise amounts of chemicals; a sensor-based VRT ensures that the correct amount of liquid nitrogen is applied to the areas being fertilized–most commonly golf courses. There are sensors on the front of the sprayer that correspond to the nozzle spray width. In the back of the sprayer are four nozzles at each spacing that are sized according to different application rates. As the sprayer crosses the field, the sensors optically detect the level of nitrogen in the plants, adding nitrogen at different rates depending upon the plant needs. Researchers are working on VRT technology for other liquid and dry materials.
Disaster recovery
Disaster recovery is a technical process for putting the computer system back together after it has “crashed,” or had a traumatic event in which information appears to be lost. The key to disaster recovery is knowing what goes where before the disaster occurs and what the steps are to get the organization back on its feet after the disaster. However, disaster recovery can also be used as a management tool to identify who is responsible for the various databases in an organization. The disaster recovery plan has three major components:
• Technical
• Security
• Management
The technical component
deals with what happens during a hardware, software, or systems failure. These
procedures include backup restoration, reloading applications, and many other
tasks. All organizations must have a working technical disaster recovery plan.
A manager or IT staff member who did not perform a proper backup within
acceptable time limits before a disaster would likely be fired. It is a mundane
and often long and tedious process but it must be done, as machines eventually
fail. This is also true for stand-alone computers. The files on a computer fall
into three broad categories:
1. System files: Files that help a computer operate properly
2. Application files: Files associated with software programs (i.e., payroll, desktop publishing, program registration)
3. Data files: Files created from an application (i.e., word processing documents, spreadsheets, databases, graphic presentations, custom maps, etc.)
System files and application files can be reloaded because they do not change in the regular course of computer operation. Data files can be replaced from backup. However, those files lack any changes made after the last backup. Subsequently, the data entry forms must be gathered and data reentered. This could be a time-consuming task. Many times, the original entry forms are not available. Documents such as speeches, employee performance reviews, operations manuals, and work order forms usually have a hard copy available. Financial transactions, participation numbers, mailing lists, and desktop publishing projects will be much more difficult to recreate because the information may be in multiple locations. Performing backups on organization information resources is a requirement. If there is no disaster plan, it becomes difficult to place responsibility, should a disaster occur. Questions to ask before any problems occur:
• Should staff be keeping organization information on stand-alone computers?
• If the data are lost or deleted, is there a recovery process?
• Are there any consequences for poor stewardship of an organization’s information resources?
The security component
deals with user access and file restriction. The goal is to allow users to have
access to all systems that will support the business plan, and restrict access
to areas that do not have relevance to the user. Security is an enterprise-wide
concern. There are many points of entry to a computer system: being physically
attached to the network, being able to “dial-in” to the network, or using an
authorized login and password. Logins and passwords are the most common form of
security on a network. The prudent administration of users reduces the
likelihood of inappropriate use of organization resources. As with the
technical component, there are IT procedures that are
specific to securing an information system. Issues with security include:
• Virus protection (inappropriate use of floppy disks or Internet access)
• Pirating (unlawful duplication and use of software)
• Access (authenticated as a valid user)
• Restriction (providing specific IT resources as needed)
The management component
assigns specific users’ responsibility to every organization database. Some of
the responsibilities would be:
• To keep information current and accurate
• To know how to use the system proficiently
• To provide training and develop documentation as needed
• To make sure maintenance contracts with system vendors are budgeted, and properly executed, and their procedures understood
• To put in place a plan for disaster recovery for that system
These database managers, or super users, could be those who know the most about the use of a given system. There are some systems in which there is no database administrator. These systems have questionable accuracy and no provisions for disaster recovery. IT staff may not be able to restore the information because it was never in place to be backed up. This is a management problem that can be corrected by implementing a sound disaster recovery plan.
Information policies need to identify two types of information:
1. Personal information: Documents,
spreadsheets, and databases that have no operational bearing on the organization
2. Department (organization) information: Information that has a direct bearing on the management, operation, and administration of organization services
The policy should state that all organization information must be backed up daily. This would include all users on a network and users on stand-alone computers. The policy would require that every organization database have a designated owner who would have custodial responsibilities. The disaster recovery plan would identify each organization database and appropriate owner. This task identifies which staff members are responsible for each piece of information. Backups may be done to a network drive or to a ZIP drive. ZIP disks are very much like portable hard drives that can be used to store backed-up data.
Disaster recovery sets forth standards for hardware, access, and responsibility. The quickest way to learn about an organization is to do a disaster recovery audit. The audit illustrates which information is vulnerable in case of a disaster, so the problem can be corrected or averted. Considerable financial resources are spent on equipment, software, training, connectivity, and supplies. Additional resources are spent in data entry, reporting, and analysis. Poor information stewardship is much like a form of devastating cancer — the victim remains unaware that something is terribly wrong until treatment is too little or too late. An organization with poor information stewardship practices will suffer financially. Management must take the lead in information resource stewardship.
Understanding IT
Infrastructure
If people built houses the way organizations build strategic information management systems, the first woodpecker that came along would destroy civilization.
(Anonymous. Cited in Wang,
1994, p. 159)
The computers, systems, wiring, little black
boxes, and communication services that are
used to perform IT functions are referred to as IT infrastructure. IT
infrastructure dictates an organization’s ability to conduct business and
provide services in the future.
IT is a specialized discipline. It changes so rapidly that it is difficult to stay abreast of the latest advances in technology. Larger organizations are usually supported by a special IT department or by contract with an IT company. Although the details and specifications are best left to the specialists, it is important to understand and be able to use IT jargon to specify and plan for IT services. Most park and recreation publications have advertising from IT providers. Smaller organizations may rely on the help of a computer-literate staff person within the organization or hire a consultant to solve their problems. There are numerous companies that provide IT services, including the local telephone provider. It is imperative that standards are adopted for each component of the infrastructure. Standards can provide a framework to simplify future buying decisions, training, and support. The four components of IT infrastructure are:
1. Workstation (device used to access organization information resources)
2. Network (communication highways over which data are transmitted and received)
3.
4. Data center (location of mainframe, supercomputers or global servers. See Exhibit 10-10.)
Workstations
A workstation could be a computer or a terminal. A personal computer refers to a standard desktop-size machine which can provide all of the basic computer functions. Currently, the largest percentage of PCs produced for business applications today are the Intel-based computers. Each brand of PC has its own distinctive technical features. The Microsoft Corporation provides the majority of operating systems found in most PCs as of this printing.
Ergonomics is the study of a user’s working environment. Computer use can cause such maladies as carpal tunnel, headaches, and back problems. Ergonomic experts look for ways to create a safer workstation and reduce the risk of users harming themselves. Some of the work area factors analyzed include lighting, keyboard height, glare, posture, workspace, desk space, work assignments, and time spent on a PC. This research has led to the production of various products including wrist rests, anti-glare screens, keyboard shelves, and more. Many times simple purchases can make a big difference in productivity and general health. Unchecked problem workstations may lead to lawsuits or avoidable medical expenses. A manager should be aware of the health-related needs of the staff using computers.
Some work areas use terminals for doing the computing tasks. A terminal is a device that is connected to a mainframe or to another PC. The terminal has limited computer processing capability and is referred to as a dumb terminal. A terminal is low in cost because it contains fewer components than a PC does. If the main computer is down, the terminal is not usable for work. In the past, mainframe computers far exceeded PCs in speed and computing power. However, PCs have become faster, cheaper, and more powerful. Terminals are being replaced with PCs to give the user the power of the mainframe and the flexibility of stand-alone computing.
Networks
A network is a sophisticated collection of computers, wires, and communications equipment. Simple networks, usually ones found on a single floor of an office building, are referred to as local area networks (LAN). The basic components of a LAN are:
1. Fileserver
2. Premise wiring
3. Hub, router, bridge, and gateway
4. Workstation (see preceding section)
5. Network interface card (NIC)
6. Network operating system (NOS)
Fileserver. Servers are specialized computers that “serve up” files and other specialized IT functions. They are composed of large disk storage systems, lots of memory, and processing speed. Servers are important because they centralize data storage functions, allow only specified users to have access, and provide printing resources as needed.
In larger organizations, a number of servers may be used to provide IT services. Common servers include an e-mail server (a distribution center that sends e-mail messages inside and outside the organization), a fax server (a device with phone line that sends, receives, and routes faxes to PCs), and an application server (dedicated specific database function that provides users with quick access to data). The purpose of specialized servers is to provide the highest possible performance in the most cost-effective configuration. Also, communication servers are used to provide network access to users at remote sites and provide network users access to other networks.
Another technique for using servers is client/server technology. In this scenario, the PC runs the application software and another program called the client. When the application needs data, it is requested through the client. The client and the server are tuned to provide the fastest possible turnaround for information. This technology rivals mainframe power and speed.
Premise Wiring (topology). To transmit data on a network, special wiring must be installed. The type of wiring used has an impact on how fast the data will travel on the network. Networks must be planned by IT professionals who specialize in network performance. There are basically four types of wiring standards:
1. Coax (looks like video cable, not common in new installations)
2. Twisted pair (looks like telephone wire, very common and inexpensive)
3. Fiber (very fast, can go long distances, expensive to install)
4. Wireless (slow performance, expensive to install)
Wiring is important because it provides access to the network. All facility construction and remodeling should include wiring for voice (telephone) and data (network access) in every room. This will increase the functionality of buildings, provide enhanced resale and rental value, and prevent unsightly exposed wire installed on a post. Typically, a data jack can be installed in the same location as a voice jack.
Hubs, Routers, Bridges, and Gateways. A hub is a special-purpose black box that reads the information packets on the wire and routes them to their destination. As workstations send and receive packets, the resulting effect is “traffic” on the wire. This traffic travels at a high speed, but there are times when packets must be held up or re-sent because a device on the network is busy with other traffic. The job of traffic cop falls to the hub.
A router sends packets from one network to another, assuming they have the same standard protocols (computer language). A bridge is used to route packets from one kind of network to another (among different types of wiring). Essentially, a packet is read on one side of the bridge and converted to the correct protocol on the other side. A gateway is a more sophisticated bridge, needed when the packet requires a specialized conversion (i.e., to access a mainframe). These devices are the workhorses of the network.
Network Interface Cards (NIC). Circuit cards, known as network interface cards, are required for any device that connects to the network. These devices convert PC signals to data packets and puts them on the wire. The NIC contains the unique address in which packets are labeled to be sent or received from a specific computer. The NIC routinely broadcasts on the wire, alerting other devices of its presence. Typically, NICs are plugged into servers, workstations, and printers so they can have direct access to the network.
Network Operating System (NOS). Servers gain their strength from a NOS. This is a complex program that coordinates the movement of data on a network. The NOS controls the flow of information by using a standard protocol for transmitting and receiving packets of data. The NOS also contains administrative features that allow a network administrator to control who can use the network, where users can print, where data can be stored, and a number of other important details. Security is an important function of the NOS.
A wide area network (WAN)
is two networks connected via high-speed data lines instead of premise wiring.
Many park and recreation organizations have remote facilities. To provide
access to organization information resources, it may be necessary to link the
administrative network and the remote location. This can be done with a
dedicated point-to-point circuit or by using a dial-up line where the remote
facility dials in to the administrative network. Not all applications work well
over a dial-up connection because the data transfer speed is not as fast as
with a LAN. Applications involving remote communications and WANs must be
professionally designed.
A campus network is two or more buildings linked together with premise wiring (usually fiber run underground) and administered from a central location. This describes the networking done at most colleges and universities. Each building has a wiring closet with racks of hubs and routers. Wiring from data jacks around the office or classroom is run back to the wiring closet. A building may have a dedicated server.
There are other options for sharing data resources and printing. One option is peer-to-peer networking. This option eliminates the need for a dedicated machine to be a fileserver. Instead, each computer on the wire can share disk space or printers. It is a good option in small offices where high performance is not required.
Many organizations use the terminal/server form of networking, where the computing power is in the server, mini-computer, or mainframe. This process has been used effectively with text-based applications. Terminals are inexpensive and easy to add within a building.
Networking is a stable technology. Once configured and in place there should be very few operational problems. Depending on the complexity of the network, the organization may assign some of the network administration responsibilities to a staff member on site. This liaison person will add new users and work with IT staff when there is a problem. Although it is possible to purchase and install network technology without professional assistance, it is not recommended.
An enterprise network is a setup where there are multiple networks, connected by an array of protocols, from multiple locations around the city or across the nation. Management of such a network is usually done by an IT department or IT vendor. The park and recreation organization becomes part of the enterprise network. The administration of an enterprise network requires that each entity on the enterprise conform to various security and technology standards. Because of the large number of types of workstations and devices available, the network must always be concerned with upgrading aging equipment and changing technology.
The enterprise provides the best
opportunity for staff to share information across organization and department
lines.
Data center
In large government organizations and businesses, the data center is still a strategic part of IT services delivery. The data center is home to all the mainframe computers. It has a special environment that includes temperature control, a fire suppression system, security control, and a power backup system. The data center is run by a number of specialized technicians who maintain and operate the various IT resources. Staff perform such services as daily backup of data, running reports, archiving and restoring data, doing routine maintenance of systems, and so on.
Associated with the data center is the software applications group. This group is composed of programmers who develop, implement, upgrade, and maintain the programs that run on the mainframe. Often the programmers are outside contractors. Costs of data center services are usually charged back to the organization.
Help desk. The manager must see that a “help desk” is established. The help desk is an important function for any IT user community. As users have questions or need assistance with IT services, they call one number for assistance. The help desk is organized as a one-stop problem resolution service. Trained customer service representatives log all calls. Most problems can be resolved right on the phone. The help desk dispatches specialists or technicians if the problem requires an on-site visit. When the problem is resolved, the IT staff member or the help desk will note it in the log. The help desk will follow up with the user a few days later to make sure that all is well. The help desk manager analyzes the call log and makes recommendations to the IT staff about fixing technical problems and to organizations about training problems.
The Information
Technology Plan
The development of an IT plan must be
facilitated by the manager through a
planning process and a planning team. Management must understand the reciprocal
impacts of a changing workplace culture and continuing technological advances
in IT infrastructure. Assessment of needs, determination of costs, and in-service education programs are essential to a
sound and viable IT plan.
The Planning Process
It is probably safe to say that there is no such thing as a five-year (or greater) information technology plan for park and recreation organizations. Changes in IT are so revolutionary and quick that it would be impractical and economically wasteful to spend time on a detailed plan. However, a five-year business plan developed with a land-use plan is a prudent way to do business. By including an IT planner or business partner in the process, organizations can focus on the technology that will be best suited for meeting user needs. As the technology changes from year to year, emphasis will be kept on the business plan, and updating, upgrading, or changing technologies will be an operational decision.
An organization may develop an IT strategy that incorporates a complex array of technologies. The desired outcome of this strategy is to make the organization successful in meeting its mission and objectives. Although cost is an issue, the primary focus must be on the delivery of services. IT solutions that do not enhance the end product become overhead costs for the organization.
Effective technology planning can help park and recreation managers make effective purchasing decisions, improve their use of technology, and use resources more efficiently. Technology planning brings clarity and long-term direction for both management practices and staff development. The organization must be committed to both the technology plan and the process. The process in planning for technology is generally as significant as the final plan and implementation. See Exhibit 10-11.
To develop a successful IT plan, each park and recreation organization must:
• Involve all the relevant stakeholders in creating the plan
• Focus on outcomes in order to define which technologies to use and for which purposes
• Be realistic about costs and effort in supporting and training all the stakeholders
• Address how the delivery of services will change with the new technologies, and what effect that will have
• Address the effect of change in the communication between administrators and staff, the staff and customers, and the administrators, staff, and residents in the global community
If there is a long time between the creation of specifications and implementation (greater than six months), make the specifications flexible enough to buy the latest technology when purchasing time comes.
Paradigm shifts in information
technology
There have been a number of changes in the workplace affecting how business is conducted. There are three shifts that are important to understand when planning for IT.
Shift 1: From Personal to Work-Group Computing. Traditionally, as personal computers (PCs) became available they were given to secretaries, finance staff, and various managers in the organization. As new park and recreation professionals entered the organization, there was greater internal pressure to provide PCs to all supervisors and managers. This was a result of more people purchasing PCs for home, schools teaching better computer skills, and the need for the organization to communicate and be more productive.
For years, staff have enjoyed having their own computers. Organizations have provided PCs as tools like telephones. Individual productivity increased due in part to having a PC readily available. However, such organizations did not always become more productive. A simple exercise, such as creating a status report, became a difficult and tedious process. Managers were trained and proficient in word processing. However, if each manager provided his or her own report in a different format, it was time-consuming to consolidate.
If divisions were using the same standard groupware, a report such as this could be one collaboration with all managers, instead of four individual efforts, requiring in addition the efforts of all the support staff to get it done. See Exhibit 10-12.
The shift to work-group computing requires two major changes:
Change in culture of the workforce, from “my computer” to “our information.” For years, divisions and sections of an organization have been delegated the responsibility and authority for producing services and accounting for their cost and quality. The idea of collaborating inter-departmentally was not comfortable because it meant giving up control or sharing control of a project or service. Managers were concerned with finger-pointing and assigning blame. To overcome that obstacle, departments would need to reorganize, putting all the staff under one manager. For years, departments have been plagued with the issues of centralized versus decentralized management because culture equates control with success.
In today’s business environment, success equals satisfied customers. It is too costly to reorganize information roles every time there is a change in management. Each functional unit must have a defined information resource that is accessible by whatever department, organization, vendor or public entity requires access, to be successful.
Change
in IT infrastructure, from “how can I
be productive?” to “how can we be
productive?”
When computer equipment was first introduced to park and recreation organizations, only a few staff had access to the technology. Today, many staff are required to support the information function of the organization. Processes and work flows must be re-engineered to create an information resource that is accessible and easy to maintain. Every dollar spent on IT resources must move the organization closer to work-group computing.
Through the vastly enhanced connectivity capability, businesses have recognized the potential for work-group productivity. Via this new technology, instead of having pieces of a project residing in four different areas in four different formats, the project can be managed from one location, with all users having access. All managers can now use a standard set of groupware tools to do the work. Some groupware applications allow users to check out databases, as in a library. In this way other team members know who has the database, and that exclusive changes are being made. Organizations are also forming high performance business teams, made up of information-oriented staffers who cross division lines to manage departmentwide information projects. See Exhibit 10-13.
In a typical park and recreation organization:
• IT functions are delegated to departments or individuals who have IT skills
• Departments are held accountable for information stewardship
• Individuals within the department perform IT tasks as defined in a job description and acquire training as needed
• Systems are developed based on the strengths and weaknesses of staff members performing the tasks
• Work flows are designed to accommodate the systems in place
• Staff make presentations to management to acquire new computers and systems, and decisions are based on cost/benefit considerations
• Face-to-face meetings are held
In an ideal Work-Group Computing organization:
• The leadership identifies the specific mission of the organization and the subsequent performance levels needed from staff to provide various services
• Business teams are formed (across divisions) that will best accomplish the performance required
• Members of these work groups must acquire a baseline of skills using standard groupware (word processing programs, spreadsheets, e-mail systems, and small databases)
• Work flow systems are designed and engineered so that the customer receiving the service benefits from the change
• All staff are expected to be contributing members of the work group
• Training and support are available to everyone within the group
• Electronic meetings replace inefficient status meetings
Groups, not individuals or divisions, are accountable to management for performance. This process will increase intradepartment cooperation so that the organization works as a unit instead of as competing divisions. The divisions remain intact and are managed accordingly. The accountants remain together to keep up with policies, procedures, and updates to the accounting systems. The recreation programming units stay together to benefit from leadership and expertise of experienced programmers. Department heads are cognizant of the work groups and provide an environment of encouragement and support. Because of IT, work groups do not have to be in the same location. There are many tools such as e-mail, teleconferencing, and groupware that allow a team to collaborate while working on a project. See Exhibit 10-14.
Shift 2: From System Islands to Integrated Systems. As functions right-size and downsize, staff are lost to other organizations or vendors, become contractors, or leave the field altogether. The existing staff then must continue at the same service levels using available resources. To accomplish this goal, the division boundaries between administrative units (finance, human resources, purchasing, marketing, etc.) and operational units (recreation services, maintenance, golf, enterprise, etc.) will become blurred. Instead of requesting information from other divisions, a staff member will need to have access to all operational or administrative information (within security limitations). To simplify the process, an organization must develop and implement information standards for document management, database management, and training.
Ideal outcomes:
• Management provides infrastructure and systems for staff to do the job
• Staff are properly trained to use systems
• Personal information generated by all users is kept to a minimum
• Staff and management personnel changes have little effect on organization services
During the infancy of the office automation craze, there were not sufficient IT tools in place to provide ease of use and ease of access to organization information. Government entities, businesses, and universities are beginning to change their view of IT. They see the organization moving from service producers to service-contract managers. As this trend continues, there will be less need for the data-entry function (it can be contracted) and more emphasis on the quality of service provided. Organizations will take a closer look at meeting constituent needs and sustaining the financial health of each core activity. See Exhibits 10-15, 16.
Shift 3: From Internal to Extended Enterprise Computing. The third paradigm shift is a little more difficult to understand. It suggests that there are a number of organizations that provide park and recreation services and that everyone can benefit if the customer has direct access to the information about each service (no matter who the provider is.) This requires information coordination with Boys Clubs, Girls Clubs, YMCAs, school systems, bowling alleys, universities, park and recreation organizations, environmental education groups, hospitals, libraries, sporting goods stores, event-planning consultants, and many, many others. Using traditional management techniques, this type of coordination would be impossible, both technically and politically. IT resources for implementing this type of coordination are now available and affordable. It is up to each organization to determine if it is practical and possible. (Exhibit 10-17.)
Assessing needs
An organization must be able to identify a clear mission statement which specifies the services it provides and how the services are provided:
• Produce services in-house or manage services of contractors
• Organize tournaments, manage facilities, or both
• Operate as one organization or autonomous divisions or sections
• Compete, partner, or coexist with other leisure service groups
• Allow the public to have electronic access to request services
Each item suggests a different set of requirements for the IT resource. Knowing the business is knowing who needs information when. The organization should be moved from an information-producing to an integrated information resource organization.
IT should be made a part of the business plan. The business need component provides guidelines as to the importance, complexity, and desired outcomes of an information resource required to make the organization successful. By embracing technology management commits to beginning or continuing the evolutionary process of integrating department information resources. Information production refers to the routine collection of data and the printing of reports (e.g., collecting facility rental data and printing a schedule, collecting attendance figures and printing a bar chart showing attendance by facility by month). Although some processes may be automated (allowing the end product to be achieved faster or with fewer steps), they may not be integrated or working together to enable change in the way business is done. (See Exhibits 10-18, 19).
IT planning is a continual cycle of assessing needs. As staff and managers capture important data, someone in the organization must look to the future to see where the business processes will be going. The private sector continues to bring new technology to the marketplace. As technology becomes more cost effective (through similar competing products or acquisition through grants, gifts, or other means) transition to new technology becomes an annual project management task.
There are many approaches to IT needs assessment. However, it would be a grave mistake to do an IT assessment without reviewing the organization business plan. The business plan sets the priorities, while the needs assessment identifies the projects.
One of the greatest emotional forces for acquiring IT is PC envy. In the late nineties it is not uncommon for people to have computers at home that are more powerful than the ones at work. As that power gap widens, staff are more vocal about upgrading in the name of productivity. As one staff member gets a new computer, people in other areas make plays for better equipment through their supervisors. The end result is that staff may be more productive, but the IT planning process may not be served. Computing resources may be skewed. Those who are not power users suddenly may have the best equipment. Another risky decision for a medium to large organization is to replace all the computers at one time without upgrading business practices, planning for global training, or using sound IT principles to guide acquisition practices.
The easiest task in the IT continuum is to buy a computer. There are multiple vendors, great pricing, and standard configurations. The most difficult task is to get staff (training), technology (systems), and business plan (intended use) moving in the same direction.
Technology changes every six months. A computer is obsolete when it is purchased. So by the time an organization specifies a computer, goes through the purchasing process, and has a computer delivered, it may be halfway through the technology cycle. The new machine will have more capability, but that capability may not be realized without strategic training. If you take this scenario and multiply it by X number of computers, there is an increasing lost benefit of buying computers. Each purchase must be planned. The effective disposal of old and unused equipment requires planning, as does the strategic training of staff.
The reverse situation is also true. Organizations are in the information business. As such, the budget must reflect a greater emphasis on IT spending.
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